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Second, we added evidence for the reliability and validity of the Japanese HEMA scale in an adult sample. Therefore, we assessed measurement invariance and latent means of the Japanese HEMA scale across gender and age groups. Because gender and age are potential individual characteristics that may influence scale ratings of well-being (e.g., Emerson et al., 2017), it is crucial to test the equivalence of the factor structure of the scale for these demographic factors.
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No studies have yet tested measurement invariance across gender and age groups, although past research reported that the HEMA scale had little relationship with gender and age ( Huta, 2016). First, we investigated whether the factor structure of the Japanese HEMA scale is equivalent across different demographic groups (i.e., gender and age) with an adult sample. This study extended earlier findings on the Japanese HEMA scale in two ways. Research on the Japanese HEMA scale with student samples demonstrated that the three-factor model was better than the two-factor model and showed that the three subscales were adequately reliable and valid ( Asano et al., 2014, 2018). “Eudaimonic” orientation refers to striving to do what is meaningful, even if difficult to achieve. “Hedonic pleasure” and “hedonic relaxation” orientations refer to striving to feel enjoyment and comfort, respectively. Although the HEMA scale was originally developed to operationalize hedonic and eudaimonic orientations ( Huta and Ryan, 2010), recent evidence has shown that the hedonic orientation of the scale can be divided into two different components ( Asano et al., 2014, 2018 Bujacz et al., 2014 Braaten et al., 2019). The HEMA scale has been translated into many languages, including German, Swedish, Polish, Italian, and Japanese (see, for a review, Huta, 2016). The Hedonic and Eudamonic Motives for Activities (HEMA Huta and Ryan, 2010) scale is used to measure both the hedonic and eudaimonic conceptions of well-being as orientations. In this study, we focus on orientations to define well-being from the hedonic and eudaimonic perspectives. The above discussions suggest that orientations can provide a better definition of well-being than the other categories. Compared to experiences (e.g., life satisfaction, positive affect, and lack of negative affect) and functioning (e.g., psychological well-being), orientations stem more from personal choice, which can be changed if desired or necessary. Orientations shape the direction of a person’s actions and are thus more fundamental than behaviors representing their specific actions. Of these, orientations represent motives, values, and goals. Huta and Waterman (2014 see also Huta, 2016) summarized the literature regarding well-being from these two perspectives in terms of four categories: orientations, behaviors, experiences, and functioning. The hedonic perspective concerns the pursuit of pleasant and comfortable states, while the eudaimonic perspective concerns living a good life and being fully functioning (see, for a review, Ryan and Deci, 2001 Ryan et al., 2008). Research on well-being has two different, yet overlapping, perspectives: hedonism and eudaimonism. It is hoped that our findings will stimulate further research on well-being using the HEMA scale. In sum, these findings suggest that the Japanese HEMA scale is useful to capture hedonic and eudaimonic conceptions of well-being as orientations. The scale showed high internal consistency and six-week test-retest reliability and reasonable correlations with life satisfaction, positive affect, negative affect, psychological well-being, and interdependent happiness. Latent mean differences of the scale across these demographic groups were less than small. The Japanese HEMA scale demonstrated measurement invariance at the configural, metric, scalar, and strict levels across gender and age groups. We investigated the measurement invariance and psychometric properties of the Hedonic and Eudamonic Motives for Activities (HEMA) scale in a Japanese adult sample ( N = 1,892). Hedonic pleasure orientation (seeking enjoyment), hedonic relaxation orientation (seeking comfort), and eudaimonic orientation (seeking meaning) are major ways that people pursue well-being. 3Division of Liberal Arts and Sciences, Aichi Gakuin University, Nisshin, Japan.
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